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“This might be due to the fact that students get a more accurate picture of the complexity of the workplace and can compare their own competence to the requirements of the workplace and the competence level of other more experienced employees" (Baartman and Ruijs 2011, 395). However, this design does carry a risk of bias, i.e., the results of the study may not represent the true situation in the population. The myopia study included only those children who attended school, and the prevalence of myopia could have been different in those did not attend school (e.g., those with severe myopia may not be able to see the blackboard and hence may have been more likely to drop out of school).
Cross-sectional studies
A different approach on the incorporation of soft skills in educational programs and its relationship with employability is Boyer’s study (2017) on the benefits of participating in English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) classes integrated with training for vocational skills. The objective was to determine whether the integration of English language instruction with a vocational program influenced participants’ job-seeking activities and employability. The main findings and recommendations of the study were, first, that developing a curriculum requires a multi-layered approach including training, education, and career development. Second, the participants were aware of their learning needs and created learning strategies. And third, that “due to the complexity of learning needs in the current and future workforce, adult education and human resource development must work together to provide unique programs that will contribute to the learning needs of individuals, organizations, and society simultaneously” (Boyer 2017, 3).
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The authors propose the modification of the existing teaching–learning strategies to integrate soft skills more successfully in the curriculum. The MIT-Zaragoza International Logistics Programme provides a special learning experience for doctoral students through its partnership with industry and government. After graduation, students receive a PhD degree and certificate in Logistics and Supply Chain Management from the University of Zaragoza and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, respectively.
Propositions for transversal skill training
Hence, the conclusion is that the success of an educational program does not rely on a single factor but on the combination of different ones and the implication of all the actors in the educational process. This is not the only study on the analysis of the existing knowledge and skills gaps and the relevance of the acquisition of transversal competences for employability. Rajadurai et al. (2018) investigated the gap between the knowledge, skills, abilities and personality of technical students and their actual performance in employment as assessed by a group of Human Resource managers. The results demonstrated the importance of developing transversal competences to enhance graduates’ competency, reliability, creativity and flexibility to meet industry requirements. Another example is Moldovan’s (2019) study included in the Erasmus + project iNduce 4.0.
Educators have had to put in practice new ways of online teaching in record time with the main purpose of fostering autonomous learning and the development of the transversal competences most demanded by the job market at the moment. The so called “new normal” has revealed the need to boost online learning and the use of new technologies as tools to acquire the skills to face the current needs of companies that are adapting at breakneck pace to telework environments, online sales, remote customer service, etc.. In this new normal, employees must possess higher skills in organization, leadership, adaptability, autonomy, teamwork and communication, among others. The acquisition of transversal competences is considered as a key element for effective employment and an essential part of the role of VET as well. To produce individuals equipped with the adequate skills adapted to the demands of the social, political and economic situation, VET institutions need to work together with the industry and policymakers. Nowadays, countries with well-developed VET systems present lower youth unemployment rates (Baumeler 2019), therefore, policymakers seek to borrow this model from those countries to transfer to their own countries.
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Through the Austrian Science Fund, doctoral students in research-based universities benefit from study abroad programmes and transversal skills training. The Flemish schools connect their doctoral programmes with job market outcomes by providing transversal skill training to early career researchers (EC, 2011b). The second research topic is transversal competences and employability in VET students. Rapid changes in the economy and the labour market can create imbalances between VET programmes and industry needs, because it becomes more and more difficult to anticipate future skill needs in the workplace. Our search brought to light the scarcity of studies at VET level and the need to understand the job market’s requirements for our students. If we think about the COVID-19 sanitary and economic crisis, we understand the relevance of addressing the pressing issue of youth unemployment and the development of those competences which will allow the future employees to adapt to new situations.
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Multiple variables and outcomes can be researched and compared at once
A literature review approach, which involved synthesizing and analyzing existing literature, was adopted in this study. A literature review method is used to identify existing information on a topic and interpretable trends in a research area (Pare et al., 2017), all of which align with this study. Essential themes were identified and collected from literature through an inductive coding technique to find answers to questions in this study. As Thomas (2006) suggested, an inductive approach allows research findings to arise from important themes present in data without constraints posed by structured methodologies. Nevertheless, CBE also has an impact on teachers’ role and teaching practice in VET (De Bruijn, 2012; Järvi, 2012). De Bruijn (2012) examined the teaching practices, related personal ideas and professional attitudes of ten teachers from five vocational schools to understand the interaction between teachers and students.
Bibliometric analysis
These are very good for measuring the prevalence of a disease or of a risk factor in a population. For example, let us think of a hospital that records every patient's smoking status at the time of the first visit. A researcher may use these records from 10 years ago, and then contact the persons today to check if any of them have already been diagnosed or currently have features of lung cancer. This is still a forward-direction study (exposure traced forward among exposed and unexposed to outcome) but is retrospective (since the outcome may have already occurred).
Models of transversal skills training
Dual VET programs, based on the German VET model, combine elements of the school-based learning with work-based practice. Their main objective is to produce skilled workers with flexible qualifications, capable of working in their chosen fields and to adapt to new job opportunities (Alemán 2015; Euler 2013). In practical terms, this means that the educational institutions and employers, always in compliance with the education policy, work together when designing training curricula. Thus, they acquire theoretical knowledge and transversal competences that allow them to become lifelong learners and to adapt to the changeable work market needs. Case reports and case-series refer to a solitary patient or to only a few cases, who may represent a chance occurrence.
The Chi-square methods and the Fisher's exact test are used in this association analysis because they are based on the diference between the expected values and those observed in the research to define their statistical significance6. For this to be possible it is necessary that the sample used in the research be as representative as possible the study universe, be accuratec, and that its size (n) is sufficient to guarantee results with the necessary precisiond. Accuracy and precision are not equivalent, because depending on the sample type and its size (n), it can be accurate but very precise or imprecise, but little accurate. The ideal condition is to obtain from the sample an accurate result that, at the same time, is also precision3. As a consequence, to reduce the cost and time of conducting the survey it is often necessary to use samples (from the universe) that, based on statistical analyzes, produce results and estimates capable of producing generalizable conclusions, even with some limitations4.
Because perceptions of students and teachers on student achievement might differ, considering both perspectives to analyse CBVE provides valuable and useful information to identify and strengthen its effectiveness. Certain researchers support the idea of exploring and implementing new methodological approaches to tackle the lack of engagement of many VET students. On the one hand, Yang (2015) proposed and evaluated a blended approach “with enhanced instructor support and scaffolding, provision of appropriate learning aids, and the use of collaborative learning” (Yang 2015, 290). In general, blended learning combines several features of face-to-face learning with the use of information technology in the form of e-learning strategies. This new approach for creating educational programs can take into account the individual differences between students and bring together different learning methods (Stapa et al. 2015). Results showed that this methodology could promote thinking skills (creative, critical and problem solving) and had a positive impact on academic achievement (Yang 2015).
In epidemiology and public health research, cross-sectional studies are used to assess exposure (cause) and disease (effect) and compare the rates of diseases and symptoms of an exposed group with an unexposed group. They can be beneficial for describing a population or “taking a snapshot” of a group of individuals at a single moment in time. In this study, researchers examine a group of participants and depict what already exists in the population without manipulating any variables or interfering with the environment. When the phenomena to be studied (risk and outcome) are quantitative (numerical) variables, it is also possible to analyze their relations by means of comparisons of means or medians using parametric statistical tests (Student's T, Fisher's Exact) or non-parametric (Mann- Whitney). In these conditions it is also possible to calculate correlation coefficients (Pearson or Spearman) and, possibly, linear regression models and even to evaluate sensitivity, specificity and predictive values (+ or -) using ROC Curves (Receiver Operating Characteristics Curves).
On the other hand, in transversal studies, observations about exposure and outcome are made at a single point in time. Design studies scholars may also analyze or research a designed object or system by studying it in terms of representations and their various meanings. Semiotics studies acts of communication between the designer, the thing, and the user or users. Scholars such as Richard Buchanan argue that design can be studied in such a way due to the existence of a design argument.[37] The design argument is made up by the designer, the user, and the applicability to "practical life".[37] The scholar would pull these segments apart and thoroughly analyze each component and their interactions.
This permits anyone to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or form according to the licence terms. BRL made substantial contributions to the conception of the work; ICL made substantial contribution on the analysis and the interpretation of data; ICL have drafted and write the work and BRL substantively revised it. The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
However, despite this, it has been shown that cases are far more likely than controls to recall history of exposure—the “recall bias.” For example, mothers of babies born with congenital anomalies may provide a more detailed history of drugs ingested during their pregnancy than those with normal babies. Also, since case-control studies do not begin with a population at risk, it is not possible to determine the true risk of outcome. As the job market evolves, soft skills are becoming more and more important for VET graduates and job seekers. Many governments and educational institutions, aware of this situation, are working on redesigning their training systems to strengthen transferable soft skills. A study conducted in Australia (Gekara and Snell 2018) examines the challenges of developing transferable skills among Australia´s workforce and the conflicts that can emerge between different actors. VET systems aim to enable workers for significant flexibility in occupational mobility.
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